MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW1.The second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.2.The second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity. The first law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the transformations of energy from one form to another with no regard to its quality. The second law provides the necessary means to determine the quality as well as the degree of degradation of energy during a process.3.The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting the degree of completion of chemical reactions.
Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or destroyed during a process. Closed systems: The mass of the system remain constant during a process. Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.Mass m and energy E can be converted to each other according towhere c is the speed of light in a vacuum, which is c = 2.9979 × 108 m/s. The mass change due to energy change is negligible.
SPECIFIC HEATSSpecific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant.The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any process.•cv and cp are properties.•cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in enthalpy.•A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg·°C or kJ/kg·K. Are these units
1. Processes can occur in a certain direction only, not in any direction. A process must proceed in the direction that complies with the increase of entropy principle, that is, Sgen ≥ 0. A process that violates this principle is impossible.2.Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there is no such thing as the conservation of entropy principle. Entropy is conserved during the idealized reversible processes only and increases during all actual processes.3.The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence of irreversibilities, and entropy generation is a measure of the magnitudes of the irreversibilities during that process. It is also used to establish criteria for the performance of engineering devices.
Introduce the concept of a pure substance.•Discuss the physics of phase-change processes.•Illustrate the P-v, T-v, and P-T property diagrams and P-v-T surfaces of pure substances.•Demonstrate the procedures for determining thermodynamic properties of pure substances from tables of property data.•Describe the hypothetical substance “ideal gas” and the ideal-gas equation of state.•Apply the ideal-gas equation of state in the solution of typical problems.•Introduce the compressibility factor, which accounts for the deviation of real gases from ideal-gas behavior.•Present some of the best-known equations of state.